“The same Nature which delights in the periodical repetition in the skies is the Nature which orders the affairs of the Earth.” Mark Twain.
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Did you know there are over 400 names for Celtic Gods and Goddesses! Many were local names or tribal and others were shared throughout the Celtic world. The Celts had Deities associated with healing, fertility, love, harvests, hunting, warfare and so many other important aspects of life. Some gods and spirits were linked with places like caves, woods, trees, rivers, mountains and sacred sites. The Celts believed spirits dwelled in trees and some trees themselves had spirits. They believed in the spirits of animals and they honoured animals for the energy associated with particular animals such as loyalty, strength, speed etc.
The Aztecs, like many other cultures and religions around the world, believed in life after death but how, according to Aztec mythology, do their beliefs about the afterlife differ from others?
The afterlife is a belief in the survival of a person in some form after physical death. The ancient Egyptians for instance strongly believed in an afterlife which they felt would be similar to this life, but far better. Christians believe in heaven and hell when the good will be rewarded by going to heaven and evil punished. The Aztecs, as did many other ancient religions, believed in a heaven and their myths speak of heaven consisting of thirteen levels. They also believed in an underworld of nine levels and four horizontal points corresponding to the compass points, each one linked with a creator god. For the Aztecs, it was not the way a person lived their life that determined the consequences of their Fate after death but it was the way they died that would decide on whether they would go to the sun god or the underworld. The house of the sun or the eastern paradise was the home of the souls of those who had been sacrificed for the gods and the souls of warriors killed in combat. The house of corn or the western paradise was the resting place of women who had died in childbirth. The southern paradise was for souls who had been drowned, struck by lightening or died of illness. The paradise of the north would be where all other souls resided at least for a while after death. Because all souls would eventually move on once again. Those, for instance, dwelling in the house of the sun would, after four years, return to earth as a humming bird, butterfly or some other exotic bird. Those souls dwelling in the western paradise would, according to some myths, return to earth as phantoms while those in the paradise of the north would be challenged with nine trials to be accomplished within four years. These trials included crossing a deep river where they might be guided by the souls of dead dogs, passing between two joined-together mountains, icy winds, wild beasts that ate human hearts, traversing narrow paths of stone, being pierced by arrows and other fearful tasks until eventually reaching the ninth level where the soul would find rest. To help them make this perilous journey, people were buried with items that might aid them when carrying out these tasks such as jade beads, food, water and blankets. The jade bead was believed to replace their heart. The souls of babies would go to one of the thirteen heavens as would the souls of men waiting to be reincarnated. These levels, according to some myths, included the earth, the moon, the stars, the sun, Venus, comets, the colour black, the colour blue, storms, white god, yellow god, red god and Omeyocan where the creators of the lord and lady of duality live. All those in the afterlife would have duties that continued to fulfil the part they had to play within the cosmic process. A soul might help cure illness, worship the sun, bring rain, make healthy plants grow and all of this would contribute to the challenge of keeping the human race alive. Life and death, according to Aztec belief, are undividable parts of the same cosmic cycle of energy. Life leads to death and in death, the body will nourish the Earth to provide for new life to be born. Sources http://www.calleman.com/content/13_heavens.htm http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/index.php?one=azt&two=aaa&id=280&typ=reg http://www.plu.edu/~beltrasa/heaven-underworld/home.html http://www.aztec-history.net/aztec_religion http://www.deathreference.com/A-Bi/Aztec-Religion.html © C Somerville. This article has also been published in Yahoo Voices and Helium. Permission to republish in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. The Green Man may well sound like a creature out of a child’s nightmare but in ancient times, he was also a Celtic God of the Woodlands.
Perhaps one of the most ancient of mythical figures in ancient Europe and even further afield, this horned deity was also god of vegetation, life energy and fertility. Known as the Dark One or Arddhu by the Welsh, he is usually portrayed as a giant figure with a human face clad in forest foliage. The Green Man’s archetype can be found in many myths and legends, for instance in the 14th century tale of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. In this legend, the Green Knight represents the ‘old religion’ of the British Isle. Not so scary a figure in Roman mythology, Diana, goddess of the hunt also became associated with woodlands. Her powers however were equally as potent. Believing her body to be sacred, no man was allowed to see her naked. One day a hunter came across Diana bathing in a pool and she was so angry she turned him into a stag! Diana, as a young girl, enjoyed her independence and was never happier than when surrounded by lithe young nymphs, hunting deer and wild boar in the depths of the forest. When she was old enough she approached her father, Jupiter, to say she had no wish to get married but wanted to be free to travel through woods and meadows and swim the rivers. Her demands did not stop there. She also wanted to enjoy these pleasures with sixty young women who loved hunting as much as she did and on returning from her hunting trips there should be a score of nymphs ready to pick up her bow, her javelin and sandals and to take care of her faithful hounds! The generous god Jupiter, amused by her request, granted her it all and so Diana took up her place initially as goddess of the chase and then as goddess of the forests and mountains. Diana was also associated with the Greek goddess of the woodland, Artemis and another woodland god, Virbius. Hippolytus, according to some myths, devoted himself to a chaste life in pursuit of hunting, after having scorned the beautiful goddess Aphrodite. In Italy, Hippolytus was given the name Virbius while in other myths Hippolytus was a woodland god or tree spirit of the sacred grove of Aricia near Rome. It is this myth among others that links the goddess Artemis with Diana. Aricia, according to ancient legend was the last one of the Pallantides. She married Virbius (also known as Hippolytus) after she was brought back to life at Artemis’ request. Artemis, one of the major Greek goddesses was a fierce hunter and protector. Tall, slim and very beautiful, she ruled over the countryside, the hunt, wild animals, forests and mountains. Another goddess associated with wild life was Ardwinna who ruled over animals and the woodlands and who haunted the forests of Great Britain riding a wild boar. While Cernunnos (also known as the Hunter, Hu Gadam and Vitiris) was a Celtic god of nature who ruled over animals and the woodlands. In Ireland, goddess of the woodlands was Flidais who rode through the woods in a chariot drawn by deer. This goddess owned a herd of supernatural cattle and her most famous cow, Maol, gave so much milk that she could nourish three hundred men and all their families too, in the one day! So within many ancient cultures all around the world can be found gods and goddesses of the woodlands many associated with one another. A mention must also be made of Merlin, associated with Arhurian legends, who although not a god, was the druid and magician who ruled over herbs, healing, nature and woodlands. Early man, all over the world, was naturally attuned to the forces of nature, the cycles of the seasons and the environment around him. All this played a significant part in the myths and legends passed down from one generation to another. The many woodland gods and goddesses illustrate a link too, between all cultures and how nature was a universal source of inspiration. Sources Ford, M “Heroes, Gods and Monsters of Ancient Greek Mythology” Book House (2009) http://www.ecopsychology.org/journal/ezine/green_man.html http://www.mythome.org/Greekconcord.html http://www.lugodoc.demon.co.uk/CERNUNOS.HTM http://www.lundyisleofavalon.co.uk/godsetc/diana.htm http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/celtic/ctexts/flidais.html © C Somerville. This article has also been published in Yahoo Voices and Helium. Permission to republish in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. With water being such an important source of life, many ancient cultures worshipped their rivers as deities. The fluidity of the water was a symbol of time, transformation, rebirth and renewal.
The chalice is the celtic symbol of water, representing the subconscious, intuition and psychic ability. The ancient Celts had a huge respect for “nature spirits” and they worshipped the rivers that flowed through their lands. Myths formed around the rivers just as the ancient Greeks had myths linked with their sacred streams. The river Ribble in Yorkshire, England was associated with the Roman god Minerva. This river gave oracles on the likely consequences of the constant battles between the English and the Welsh. If the stream flooded the Welsh side, this nation would be victorious and vice-versa. The Ribble was also associated with Belisma, goddess of all types of fire in Gaulish mythology. Also believed to be goddess of healing and wisdom, Belisma has been linked with the river Mersey due to Ptolemy’s map of Northern Britain showing an estuary called Belisama Aest where the Mersey should be. However it has been argued that the Belisama Aest is more likely the estuary of the modern river Ribble. The river Dee in Scotland was given divine status, some say as a war goddess called Aefon. The name ‘dee’ is believed to mean goddess and a neighbouring river to the north of the river Dee, the river Don also means ‘goddess.’ Throughout the ancient world, gods and goddesses were attributed to the oceans and rivers and associations of the sea. Aegaeon was the Greek god of sea storms, Brizo, the goddess of sailors and Ceto, goddess of the dangers of the ocean. Thankfulness would be shown to the goddess Galene when the sea was calm. While Poseidon was lord of the sea gods as well as being god of rivers, flood, storms and earthquakes. According to Aztec mythology, Atlacamani was the goddess of storms at sea while Atlaua, also a water goddess, was called upon by fisherman prior to going to sea, for protection. The Inuits believed in Aipaloovik who was an evil sea god and Arnapkapfaaluk, another evil personality who controlled the animals of the sea. Nootaikok,was worshipped as the god of ice-bergs and glaciers. In many parts of the world, sacrifices were made to the rivers to prevent them from claiming the human lives that it was believed they craved. The Spey, in Scotland, for instance required a yearly sacrifice but the spirit of the above-mentioned Ribble was fulfilled with one sacrifice every seven years! According to Greek mythology, when Diana, daughter of Jupiter was old enough to be independent she presented her father, with a list of demands for her future including her desire to be free to travel the woods and meadows, climb hills and swim across deep rivers. Jupiter granted her requests and gifted her with dogs, nymphs and hunting girls. Diana took her place in the world of the gods, initially as a hunting goddess and then later as goddess of the Rivers, Lakes, Springs, Marshes, Forests and Mountains. In this role she could pursue her destiny roaming the countryside, hunting wild animals and swimming! In most Gaelic counties, wells were deeply revered, many of these ‘holy wells’ having divine powers such as the ability to cure, provide the ancients with good luck or change the weather. The Celts would give offerings to the well gods or nymphs. The Celts worshipped Lir (Llyr), god of the sea and Lir’s son, Manannan ruled over the waves. The water goddess Acionna had the power to control movement of the water and was goddess of the springs. Without water nothing will survive and throughout the world myths centre on this precious gift from the gods. If not associated with a god, springs and wells were seen to be the dwelling places of the gods or it was believed they possessed magical properties such as the ability to cure or divination. Celtic Druids had their sacred wells that would show them the future. They also believed certain rivers and springs to be the entrances to the “Otherworld.” References Graves, R “Greek Gods and Heroes”, Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group (2001) Ford, M “Heroes, Gods and Monsters of Ancient Greek Mythology” Book House (2009) Rolleston, T W “Celtic Myths and Legands”, Dover Publications (2003) http://www.theoi.com/Pontios/Triton.html http://www.call-of-the-sea.com/menu_gods.htm http://www.theoi.com/greek-mythology/sea-gods.html © C Somerville. This article has also been published in Yahoo Voices and Helium. Permission to republish in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. In ancient times, the steady path of the moon around the earth and the constantly changing phases of this celestial body formed the bases of the calendar. As well as a measure of time, the different phases of the moon would be used to determine the best time to plant and harvest crops. In many cultures, the female menstrual cycle was linked to the moon.
Observable from all around the world, the moon plays an important role in the belief system of most cultures and among many, the moon, perceived as being female in nature, was worshipped as a goddess. Where there is a moon god or goddess, there will be links with a sun god and these myths occasionally merged with each other. In Greek mythology for instance, the moon goddess was originally Selene and the sun god, Helios. Later myths associated Artemis with Selene and Apollo with Helios. Apollo was then worshipped as a sun god and Artemis, the moon goddess. To confuse things even further, as children, the twins Apollo and Diana drank nectar from the cup of the gods and ate the ambrosia which would give them immortality. Diana became goddess of the Chase while Apollo became Phoebus, god of the Sun. This god was fated to lead a double life, sometimes on earth and other times in the heavens. On earth, he was worshipped as Apollo, in the heavens he was known as Phoebus! Diana, initially goddess of the Chase, later became a moon goddess or Phoebe. Her father Jupiter granted her wish to roam the countryside, swim deep rivers, climb mountains and pursue wild animals while on earth. On earth therefore she was always known as Diana. Diana could hold the moon high up in the sky to lighten the darkness of night but sometimes, when weary of her duties, she would visit her brother Apollo and while in the heavens, she was known as Phoebe, goddess of the moon! The Egyptian god of Moon and Magic, Thoth, was also associated with the intellect, communication, the written word, magic and wisdom. He was usually portrayed as having the body of a man and the face of a dog-headed baboon or an ibis. The ibis was thought to have a crescent beak, linking this bird to the moon while the dog-headed baboon, a nocturnal animal, would greet the sun with its chatter, each morning as Thoth would greet the sun god Ra at dawn as Ra began to rise in the skies. The Indian moon god Chandra ruled the dream world and psychic visions. He would get regular breaks from travelling around the earth, sharing this task with his female counterpart Candi one taking over from the other at the end of each monthly cycle. All over the world in ancient times, people would worship moon gods or goddesses, some sharing this status with other gods or with other duties. There was Annuit the Babylonian goddess of the moon, Anahita, the Persian river goddess who was also goddess of Venus. Many Native American tribes worshipped the moon goddess Athenesic while the goddess Hanwi, according to myth, once lived with the sun god Wi. After a wrongdoing for which he would not forgive her, she was forced to become a creature of the night. Some cultures spoke of gods and goddesses living on the moon. The Hawaiian goddess Hina, according to myth, got tired of working for her brother and fled to the moon for some peace! At the full moon of the eighth lunar month, the Chinese celebrate the moon goddess Chang-O who also lives on the moon. The ancient Celts had a deep and powerful respect for the moon. For these ancients the moon was the goddess who played a crucial role in their festivals, rituals and celebrations. The moon goddess Rhiannon was a fairy princess who rode so swiftly that no human could ever catch her. According to romantic myths, she fell in love with and married a mortal, the king of Wales. Rhiannon was accused of murdering their baby son but later found to be innocent, she was reunited with her husband and restored to her throne. This moon goddess later became the Lady of the Lake who gave Arthur the magical sword, Excalibur. Sources Graves, R “Greek Gods and Heroes”, Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group (2001) Ford, M “Heroes, Gods and Monsters of Ancient Greek Mythology” Book House (2009) © C Somerville – This article has also been published on Yahoo Voices and Helium. Permission to republish this article in print or online must be granted by the author in writing With water being such an important source of life, many ancient cultures worshipped their rivers as deities. The fluidity of the water was a symbol of time, transformation, rebirth and renewal.
The chalice is the celtic symbol of water, representing the subconscious, intuition and psychic ability. The ancient Celts had a huge respect for “nature spirits” and they worshipped the rivers that flowed through their lands. Myths formed around the rivers just as the ancient Greeks had myths linked with their sacred streams. The river Ribble in Yorkshire, England was associated with the Roman god Minerva. This river gave oracles on the likely consequences of the constant battles between the English and the Welsh. If the stream flooded the Welsh side, this nation would be victorious and vice-versa. The Ribble was also associated with Belisma, goddess of all types of fire in Gaulish mythology. Also believed to be goddess of healing and wisdom, Belisma has been linked with the river Mersey due to Ptolemy’s map of Northern Britain showing an estuary called Belisama Aest where the Mersey should be. However it has been argued that the Belisama Aest is more likely the estuary of the modern river Ribble. The river Dee in Scotland was given divine status, some say as a war goddess called Aefon. The name ‘dee’ is believed to mean goddess and a neighbouring river to the north of the river Dee, the river Don also means ‘goddess.’ Throughout the ancient world, gods and goddesses were attributed to the oceans and rivers and associations of the sea. Aegaeon was the Greek god of sea storms, Brizo, the goddess of sailors and Ceto, goddess of the dangers of the ocean. Thankfulness would be shown to the goddess Galene when the sea was calm. While Poseidon was lord of the sea gods as well as being god of rivers, flood, storms and earthquakes. According to Aztec mythology, Atlacamani was the goddess of storms at sea while Atlaua, also a water goddess, was called upon by fisherman prior to going to sea, for protection. The Inuits believed in Aipaloovik who was an evil sea god and Arnapkapfaaluk, another evil personality who controlled the animals of the sea. Nootaikok,was worshipped as the god of ice-bergs and glaciers. In many parts of the world, sacrifices were made to the rivers to prevent them from claiming the human lives that it was believed they craved. The Spey, in Scotland, for instance required a yearly sacrifice but the spirit of the above-mentioned Ribble was fulfilled with one sacrifice every seven years! According to Greek mythology, when Diana, daughter of Jupiter was old enough to be independent she presented her father, with a list of demands for her future including her desire to be free to travel the woods and meadows, climb hills and swim across deep rivers. Jupiter granted her requests and gifted her with dogs, nymphs and hunting girls. Diana took her place in the world of the gods, initially as a hunting goddess and then later as goddess of the Rivers, Lakes, Springs, Marshes, Forests and Mountains. In this role she could pursue her destiny roaming the countryside, hunting wild animals and swimming! In most Gaelic counties, wells were deeply revered, many of these ‘holy wells’ having divine powers such as the ability to cure, provide the ancients with good luck or change the weather. The Celts would give offerings to the well gods or nymphs. The Celts worshipped Lir (Llyr), god of the sea and Lir’s son, Manannan ruled over the waves. The water goddess Acionna had the power to control movement of the water and was goddess of the springs. Without water nothing will survive and throughout the world myths centre on this precious gift from the gods. If not associated with a god, springs and wells were seen to be the dwelling places of the gods or it was believed they possessed magical properties such as the ability to cure or divination. Celtic Druids had their sacred wells that would show them the future. They also believed certain rivers and springs to be the entrances to the “Otherworld.” References Graves, R “Greek Gods and Heroes”, Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group (2001) Ford, M “Heroes, Gods and Monsters of Ancient Greek Mythology” Book House (2009) Rolleston, T W “Celtic Myths and Legands”, Dover Publications (2003) |
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